by Dr. Susan Snyder
May, 1999
Watch children playing, you will see children learning. Notice the choices individual children make, and you can identify many ways of knowing and learning. Enter a H.O.T. School, and observe teachers and students actively engaged in hands-on, minds-on, child-centered learning. Many ways of knowing are honored. The arts provide the processes for this powerful model through opportunities to create, perform, and respond.
The arts disciplines are commonly called dance, drama, music, and visual arts. Language arts can be included, particularly when it is approached through the three artistic processes of creating, performing, and/or responding (CT "Artistic Processes"). Each art represents a unique body of knowledge, a distinct lens for viewing the world. In a broad context, each art is a mode of communication through which information is received from and transmitted to others. Each art is a language: music is the language of sound, visual art the language of image, dance the language of gesture, and language arts the language of words. Drama combines two or more of these languages at a time.
The deep, rich learning that results from infusing the arts into and through the curriculum leads to benefits including increased achievement (Wolcott School, Kaleidoscope), greater ability to problem solve and think creatively (Larson/Lafferty), higher self-esteem, increased attendance, more parent participation, and a growing sense of community (McCaughey). In this article, evidence recommending arts infusion across the curriculum is outlined, followed by strategies for creating in-depth integration, stages of implementation, and potential issues that arise. Finally, characteristics of an arts-infused school are outlined and compared to a traditional school model.
Educators refer to ways of knowing as intelligences. As an alternative to the one number IQ, Howard Gardner and a team of researchers provide evidence of several distinct and unique human ways of knowing and learning (Gardner). The originally identified seven intelligences are musical, linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Naturalist is a recent addition, affording eight ways to know. Although many intelligences seem parallel to traditional school disciplines of music, language, math, visual art, movement/physical education, and science; each intelligence is better described as a way of knowing in all disciplines. There are linguistic elements in music, math, science; there are spatial elements in math, science, movement; and so on. Eventually, during the transition from traditional to arts-infused curriculum design, the seemingly neat parallels breaks down and become reconfigured.
If each intelligence is considered a language, or a mode of communication, then there would be seven or eight ways of communicating that Gardner’s research suggests are equally important. Every student has the right to learn how to communicate in each of these human ways, and to the extent that any is not taught for its own sake, that child will become a less human adult, left out of important interactions, unable to make fully informed decisions.
Specific types of information are processed in different areas of the brain. Researchers identify three levels (reptilian, mammalian, and neo-cortex), two sides (right and left), and several centers related to each intelligence. Although brain mapping is relatively new, resonance imaging has provided useful information related to both development and learning. Brain development is dependent upon multiple experiences in each intelligence, leading to neuron placement that builds centers prepared for learning (Healy). Critical periods for growth advise curriculum planning. For example: the critical period for development of steady beat is nearly over by age 5 (Wiekart). Steady beat is required for reading development (Wiekart). The logical conclusion is that emphasis on steady beat in Pre-K-Grade 1 will increase reading skill. Likewise, a critical period for movement development occurs during Kindergarten and grade 1, while the critical period for word language and reading occurs when most children are in grades 2 and 3 (Coulter). Although print rich environments, phonemic awareness, and oral language development should be prevalent from birth, reading is a skill best developed explicitly in Grade 2, a critical period where codes are important and interesting.
Brain development occurs as the result of interactive experiences with the environment. Experiences that require more than one processing area begin to build connections between areas of the brain, allowing information to be used in more than one way. Hands-on solving of real, complex problems develops a higher-order-thinking brain.
Higher order thinking, in educational terms, has several connotations. Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom) provides one well-known hierarchy for defining levels of intellectual functioning. In the sequence of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, evaluation, and synthesis, the last three are considered higher order thinking skills. Since all intelligences are cognitive and require thinking, Bloom’s Taxonomy can be applied to all intelligences or subjects (disciplines).
All disciplines can likewise provide experiences that develop the creative, or problem solving, type of thinking. Researchers in creative thinking use a sequence: identify a problem, incubation, AHA (Parnes)! Another popular way to label the steps of this process is: imitate, improvise, create. While this higher level thinking, creative problem solving sequence occurs in all disciplines; it is most readily apparent in the arts, unencumbered by constraints of linear disciplines such as word language or math. Arts disciplines provide the lab for development of critical thinking, while teaching through the arts allows exploration of knowledge and skills in all disciplines through hands-on, minds-on learning by doing.
The rationale for an overarching goal of developing higher-level thinking has several aspects. Facts are increasing at an extraordinary rate that there are far too many for any one person to learn in school. At the same time, sources for finding needed facts are readily available through texts, computers, internet, telephone, calculators, and so on. It has become increasingly important for students to learn conceptual categories for groups of facts, and generalizations that allow the student to search for meaningful facts (Erickson). Students likewise need basic skills in all languages - they need to know how things work, how ideas can be manipulated, and how to transfer existing knowledge and skills to new situations. Businesses are asking for graduates who can solve problems, think for themselves, and devise creative solutions to complex problems (SCANS). This means recognizing the problem through analysis, brainstorming and researching ideas, synthesizing old and new information, and finally determining a solution.
Misconceptions about the nature of arts disciplines and arts education should be dispelled quickly. The arts are rigorous disciplines with content specific knowledge and skills. They are each academic core subjects, with cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects. Literacy in each art is the right of every student, and these literacies are as important as literacy in word language and/or the symbolic language of mathematics. Although traditional educational models may not reflect this perspective, it is probable that many of education’s problems can be attributed to lopsided priorities that minimize the power of the arts. Children deprived of meaningful experiences in the arts are not equipped to become whole human beings, and have less capacity to collaborate, problem-solve, and think across disciplines.
Arts-infused schools teach in, about and through the arts to develop higher-order thinking skills (Shuler). The arts are equal subjects in the curriculum, and are taught on a daily basis by trained specialists. Teaching in each of the arts requires standards, goals, and objectives in the art discipline, designed to build knowledge and skills in each specific art form. Teaching about the arts is a shared responsibility of the specialists and general classroom teachers. Teaching through the arts is done by classroom teachers, in consultation with arts specialists. This requires that classroom teachers understand each of the arts disciplines somewhat.
Many teachers claim to integrate the arts into their curriculum in some way. Frequently there is a song or painting that relates to some knowledge, skill, or theme. For example: If the theme is Farm Animals, then they sing "Old MacDonald." If the theme is the Revolutionary War, out comes the painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware." Although these efforts probably make the lesson more entertaining, it is questionable whether they deepen the learning, or help students understand and concepts or skills taught. They certainly are not intended to develop understanding and skill of music or visual art. This kind of link is called a connection.
Connection, Correlation and Integration are three ways to link disciplines or intelligences which are increasingly more complex, and also increasingly meaningful ways to link music with other disciplines or intelligences. (Snyder)
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Most classroom teachers use connections, because they require no arts understanding, and very little skill. In a connection, the arts discipline is in the service of another discipline. It is fine for classroom teachers to use music in this way, and it is a very powerful learning/teaching tool. But it is not justifiable to substitute this process for sound music education. As we explore further, you will see that a connection is likewise not integrated learning, even though this type of activity is frequently cited as integrating music into the curriculum.
Connections signal the first glimmer of arts infusion. Student response is usually very positive, adding momentum to tentative beginnings. Soon teachers are looking for more and more ways to bring the arts into their classrooms and the ball has started rolling. With very little expertise, but high interest and excitement, this initial stage provides the impetus to forge ahead.
Remember that a connection is not an example of arts education, or arts-infused curriculum design. It is simply one or more art(s) in the service of another discipline, and should not become a substitute for sound educational designs. If this distinction cannot be clearly articulated, it is possible that decision makers will assume that arts specialists are no longer needed, and that classroom teachers can take over the teaching of the arts through "integration." This is not the case, and students will lose any possibility of learning in or about the arts through sequential, developmentally appropriate instruction, which must be provided by trained specialists. The good news is that it only takes a little thought to address both disciplines equally, thereby creating a correlation.
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Correlations signal a second stage in the development of the arts-infused school. The increased communication between staff members affords the opportunity to understand one another’s curricula, and become more creative. Students quickly notice relationships between activities in different classrooms, and enjoy exploring materials/ideas from different perspectives.
Another aspect of correlation involves the single teacher correlating different aspects of one discipline. Arts specialists who are incorporating national, state, or district standards into their planning, may find that they can choose one concept or material, and explore it from the perspective of the many standards on their discipline. For example: A music specialist at the elementary level might start with a song, and develop lessons related to that song that address each of the 9 National standards.
At this point, many schools begin to apply funding through grants. This money is often initially spent on arts materials for the classroom or school, and for visiting artists from the community. In other words, funding is first spent looking outward for arts infusion. Sometimes an outside consultant is hired to provide in-service, or to facilitate decision making.
Almost always, teachers working on correlations use materials rather than themes. Many creative and interesting activities can be generated through correlation, and the skills and concepts of each discipline can be addressed. Furthermore, collaboration between teachers brings breadth, understanding and support to both disciplines and teachers. Beginning in individual classrooms, building to collaborations between teachers, and often leading to single days where the whole school breaks the tradition and focuses on a theme; creativity leads to success after success. However correlations, although more defensible than connections, still do not produce a truly integrated, arts-infused curriculum.
A characteristic of stage 2 schools is maintenance of traditional schedules and heavy emphasis on language and math mastery tests. Arts-infusion comes to a halt until after mastery tests, usually late in the fall. As arts-related correlations yield successful results, and the school becomes more of a community, two different dynamics occur. First, both arts specialists and classroom teachers feel increased pressure, because without fundamental changes, the correlations require extra effort. Rather than becoming a way to teach all knowledge and skills, this transitional period is one of increased stress. Second, there is increasing tension between the needs of students and teachers, and the traditional schedules and curricular divisions. Arts educators need more time with students and other teachers. Classroom teachers need larger chunks of time. All teachers are increasingly curious about other curricula, particularly classroom teachers needing more skill and knowledge in the arts. Extra time is required for teachers to plan together. Students are beginning to have more decision-making power. Parents and community members are increasingly welcome in the school. A learning community is emerging.
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Integrated, arts-infused curriculum can be begun in a traditional school, but this third stage usually signals a change in school goals and scheduling. As the intellectual walls begin to crumble, and power is shared in the learning community, the arts become the lab for learning in all disciplines. Learning occurs in, about, and through the arts. Students become involved in real life problems within the community, and the community becomes drawn into the excitement of the school. Teachers are sometimes experts, sometimes facilitators, and sometimes learners along with students. Students work alone, in pairs, and in-groups within and across grade levels.
Themes in the lower grades are conceptual. In the intermediate and upper grades, the focuses become learning/creative processes, problem-solving, understanding intelligences and ways of knowing, and building life skills. The arts are at the center of teaching and learning, providing a rich context for knowledge and skills.
There is not one design or plan for an art-infused school. The vision and resulting plan must come from within, and all players should have input into the decision making. Funding is increasingly spent to buy time for increased collaboration, and student experiences outside the school walls. At the conceptual school center, student needs are the first priority, followed closely by community needs.
Although there are many variations based on school-wide goal setting and decision making, several characteristics are increasingly evident as the arts become infused into the curriculum.
There is a comfortable sense of trust, respect, and equality between
all members of the school community, based on an on-going policy of
mutual problem-solving. Basic personal and interpersonal skills are
actively taught and practiced. A student council leads democratic
decision making, and adults and students respect decisions.
An arts-infused school is always in the process of becoming. It is never "done." Because learning through the arts is based on active, dynamic processes; it is always changing, truly preparing students to live in tomorrow’s world.
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Coulter, D. J. Mind and music. (Longmont, Colorado: Coulter Publications, 1986).
Erickson, H. Lynn. Stirring the Head, Heart, and Soul: Redefining Curriculum and Instruction (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 1995).
Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Tenth Anniversary Edition (New York: Basic Books, 1995).
Healy, Jane. Endangered Minds: Why Children Don’t Think and What We Can Do About It (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990).
Jensen, Eric. Teaching with the Brain in Mind (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 1998).
Larson, Elaine and Lafferty, Nancy. Birds, in preparation for publication (IDEAS, Rowayton, CT 06853).
McCaughey, Margaret. Creating and Sustaining an Arts Infused School Culture: Ways to Improve Student Performance (Videotape). (The Cultural Council of Greater Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL).
Radford, J., Parr, C. and Snyder, S. Kaleidoscope: Building an Arts-Infused Elementary Curriculum (Early Childhood Education Journal, 1998).
Shuler, Scott. The Artistic Processes, unpublished. (Connecticut State Department of Education, revised 1999).
Snyder, Sue. Integrate with Integrity (Arts Education IDEAS, 1996).
Wiekart and Carlton. Foundations in Elementary Education: Movement (Find it at West Music, 800-397-9378).
Return to the Outline
This article describes joyful, powerful teaching and learning that develops Higher Order Thinking (HOT) through arts-infused curriculum.
A
connection is the most popular, most used, and least
meaningful way of linking disciplines. In a connection, materials or
concepts (usually materials) from one discipline are used to help
teach or reinforce a concept in another curricular area. Another way
to say this is that the children are learning through music, but not
learning in or about music.
A
Correlation is made between two or more disciplines
through shared materials or topics. Two or more teachers agree to
correlate by using same materials or addressing same topics at the
same time, however no plan is made to develop important ideas across
disciplines - to form generalizations. 
